1 Introduction
In the conventional practice of
music, the process of composition can be understood as the conception
and organization of musical ideas, whereas an instrument provides
the equipment necessary to realize such a work. In contemporary
interactive media such as multimedia web sites, computer games,
and other interactive applications involving the personal computer
and mobile devices, this distinction remains largely the same.
The composition of the music heard in these environments consists
of musical statements to be heard and instructions to be executed
in the course of an interaction. Often these structures call for
a great deal of random sequencing and repetition following a linear
structure. [1][2] The instrument can be simulated in software
and manipulated using the inputs of an interactive system. It
is usually represented as a database of recordings or samples.
Composition and instrument are treated as distinct in the structure
underlying the media product and function in their traditionally
separate roles.
This separation, while not wholly
damaging to the experience of the media, should not be immune
from scrutiny. Music that operates in a binary, linear mode does
little to recognize the emergence, or becoming, that one experiences
in the course of an interactive exchange. A traditional, narrative
compositional approach leaves no room for the potential of a becoming
of music. There is need for a critique of music in contemporary
interactive media. The emergent, non-linear experience of interactivity
is incongruous with the overly repetitive, linear music that is
often heard in this field. It is time to ask:What kinds of
compositional techniques can be used to create a music that recognizes
the emergence and the potential of becoming found in a digitally-based
or telematic interaction with art and media?
1.1 Composition-instrument
Blurring the traditionally distinct
roles of composition and instrument provides one possible answer
to this question. This approach allows a piece of music to play,
or undergo a performance like a traditional composition. When
it plays it allows listeners or users to have a musical experience
of sound. But it can also be played like a conventional instrument.
This treatment allows the musical output of the work to be modified
by users in the course of an interaction. This "instrumentalization"
transforms the work into an agent for further musical expression
and exploration. Thus, a composition-instrument is a work that
can play and be played simultaneously.
A composition-instrument is not
a specific piece of music or interactive work in itself but a
means of approaching any work where music can be created and transformed.
Composition-instrument is a conceptual framework that helps facilitate
the creation of musical systems for interactive media, art, and
telematic environments. This paper will discuss the historical
context of this compositional approach and show how it is beginning
to emerge in the current field of interactive media. The example
of an original work aspires to demonstrate how a composition-instrument
approach to music exhibits a congruity with the emergent nature
of the medium. And finally, discussion of a contemporary computer
game project exposes the potential of this musical concept in
the world of games, digital art, and telematic media
2 History
Though the idea of a composition-instrument
hybrid is situated in the praxis of computer games, telematic
media and digital art, the historical precursors to this kind
of compositional approach lie in an entirely different field and
stem from three different musical traditions: Experimental, Improvisatory,
and Generative. Each of these traditions has established aesthetic
approaches, creative processes, and musical style. A historical
perspective helps to reveal how these attributes can be woven
into the fabric of a compositional approach for music that operates
in art and media environments with telematic and digitally-based
interaction.
2.1 Experimental Music
The roots of a composition-instrument approach
can be found in Experimental music. American composer Earle
Brown was looking for ways to open musical form and incorporate
elements of improvisation into his music during the 1950's.
He found a great deal of inspiration in the mobiles of sculptor
Alexander Calder. Brown described them to improvising guitarist
and author Derek Bailey as, "…transforming works
of art, I mean they have indigenous transformational factors
in their construction, and this seemed to me to be just
beautiful. As you walk into a museum and you look at a mobile
you see a configuration that's moving very subtly. You walk
in the same building the next day and it's a different configuration
yet it's the same piece, the same work by Calder."
[3] |
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"Red Lily Pads" by
Alexander Calder, 1956 |
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Brown's thoughts on musical structure
are also noted by Michael Nyman in "Experimental Music: Cage
and Beyond." Brown emphasizes that one importance of composition
is to be both a means of sonic identification and musical point-of-departure.
"There must be a fixed (even if flexible) sound-content,
to establish the character of the work, in order to be called
'open' or 'available' form. We recognize people regardless of
what they are doing or saying or how they are dressed if their
basic identity has been established as a constant but flexible
function of being alive." [4] Brown was interested in approaching
music with an openness that allowed every performance to render
a unique musical output that retains the essential character of
the work. These compositional ideas, however, were not exclusive
to Brown and his music.
Terry Riley's In C, composed
in 1964, is a seminal work in both the Experimental and Minimalist
music traditions, and shares in the compositional approach discussed
by Brown. The piece consists of 53 melodic phrases (or patterns)
and can be performed by any number of players. The piece is notated,
but was conceived with an improvisatory spirit that demands careful
listening by all involved in the performance. Players are asked
to perform each of the 53 phrases in order, but may advance at
their own pace, repeating a phrase or a resting between phrases
as they see fit. Performers are asked to try to stay within two
or three phrases of each other and should not fall too far behind
or rush ahead of the rest of the group. An eighth note pulse played
on the high C's of a piano or mallet instrument helps regulate
the tempo, as it is essential to play each phrase in strict rhythm.
[5][6]
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The musical outcome of In C is
a seething texture of melodic patterns in which phrases emerge,
transform, and dissolve in a continuous organic process. Though
the 53 patterns are prescribed, the choices made by individual
musicians will inevitably vary, leading to an inimitable version
of the piece every time it is performed. Riley's composition
reflects the imperative of self-identification expressed by
Brown, but it also illustrates some of John Cage's thoughts
on Experimental music, when he writes that the "experiment"
is essentially a composition where "the outcome of which
is unknown." [7] In performance, In C has indefinite
outcomes and yet is always recognizable as In C due
to the "personality" of the composition—the
patterns and performance directions that comprise the work. |
2.2 Free Improvisation
There are links between Experimental
music practice and improvisatory music. Free Improvisation is
a good example of this. The genre took root in Europe in the early
1960s, with London, England serving as a major hub in its development.
[3] This genre, in spite of labels and stereotypes, still involved
elements of composition. One instance of this can be found in
the coalescence of performing groups. In his essay "Les Instants
Composés," Dan Warburton notes that "The majority
of professional improvisers are choosy about who they play with…and
tend to restrict themselves to their own personal repertoire of
techniques." [8]
David Borgo, in a recent publication
on music improvisation and complex systems [9], acknowledges that
this characteristic in free improvisation praxis comprises an
important aspect of the musical organization and composition in
these performances. Free improvised music depends upon some amount
of organization, even if it is minimal. In musical situations
where there is no preparation or discussion of musical intentions,
an established rapport or relationship between performers serves
as a kind of composition. This provides organization through familiarity
and shared sensibilities. Borgo describes an improvising ensemble
as an "open system" that emerges from bottom-up processes
driven by players' relationships and interactions, their training,
and environmental factors. Listening is also a huge factor because
it regulates the dynamics of the performance. Players are constantly
aware of their contributions as well as the contributions of others,
and make split-second decisions based on the overall musical output
of the group.
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Composition in this genre can be more formalized
as well. Saxophonist Steve Lacy talks very openly about how
he uses composition as a means of mobilizing a performance
and creating a musically fertile situation that can nurture
an improvisational performance. He stated, "I'm attracted
to improvisation because of something I value. That is a freshness,
a certain quality, which can only be obtained through improvisation,
something you cannot possibly get from writing. It is something
to do with 'edge'. Always being on the brink of the unknown
and being prepared for the leap. And when you go on out there
you have all your years of preparation and all your sensibilities
and your prepared means but it is a leap into the unknown.
If through that leap you find something then it has a value
which I don't think can be found in any other way. I place
a higher value on that than on what you can prepare. But I
am also hooked on what you can prepare, especially in the
way that it can take you to the edge. What I write is to take
you to the edge safely so that you can go on out there and
find this other stuff." [3] |
2.3 Game Pieces
A similar aesthetic is evident in
John Zorn's compositional approach to his game pieces, which he
considered as a later-day version of Riley's In C, "…
something that is fun to play, relatively easy, written on one
sheet of paper. Game pieces came about through improvising with
other people, seeing that things I wanted to have happen weren't
happening. [10] Zorn discusses the compositional direction he
followed, "The game pieces worked because I was collaborating
with improvisers who had developed very personal languages, and
I could harness those languages in ways that made the players
feel they were creating and participating. In these pieces, they
were not being told what to do. You don't tell a great improviser
what to do—they're going to get bored right away."
[10]
In an interview with Christopher
Cox, Zorn explains his rationale behind this position. He emphasizes
how the individuality of the players he selected to perform the
game pieces was an essential part of the compositional process,
"I wanted to find something to harness the personal languages
that the improvisers had developed on their own, languages that
were so idiosyncratic as to be almost un-noteate-able (to write
it down would be to ruin it). The answer for me was to deal with
form not with content, with relationships not with sound."
[11] Zorn understood the musicians in his ensemble and knew what
they were and were not interested in playing. He was able to situate
their personal musical vocabularies in a larger structure that
allowed for freedom and individual expression while also satisfying
his own musical objectives.
2.4 Generative Music
Experimental music composition,
and techniques or processes of composition found in various forms
of improvised music are similar to the work involved in modeling
an emergent, self-organizing system. Generally, all involve a
bottom-up structural approach that generates emergent dynamics
through a lack of centralized control. The same can be said of
generative music. Musician, composer, and visual artist Brian
Eno has been working with a variety of generative structures throughout
his career. He looks at works like In C, or anything
where the composer makes no top-down directions, as precursors
to generative music. In these works detailed directions are not
provided. Instead there is "a set of conditions by which
something will come into existence." [12]
Eno's influential Ambient recording
Music for Airports was created using generative
techniques [13]. Rather than deal directly with notes and
form, generative composers create systems with musical potential.
Eno refers to this as "…making seeds rather than
forests," and "…letting the forests grow
themselves," drawing on useful metaphors from arboriculture.
An important aspect of this approach, however, is in setting
constraints so that the generative system is able to produce
what its creator (and hopefully others) will find to be
interesting. In a recent conversation with Will Wright,
the designer of The Sims and SimCity,
Eno explains the reasoning behind this, "You have to
care about your inputs and your systems a lot more since
you aren't designing the whole thing (you are not specifying
in detail the whole thing) you're making something that
by definition is going to generate itself in a different
way at different times." [13] |
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These techniques—experimental,
improvisatory, and generative—exhibit in their emergence
a becoming. With each, the simple rules or relationships that
form a composition act together and lead to unexpected, unpredictable,
or novel results. Musical gestures show a ripple of promise, take
ephemeral form, and then dissipate. Often this process requires
a great investment of attention and time on the part of the listener.
Time is especially important in Generative music, where the intentions
are not to produce an immediate effect or shock of perception,
but a gradual transformation as sounds are heard in the ebb and
flow of the generative process. This quality of becoming can be
similar to the emergence of a telematic environment or an experience
with interactive art or media.
3 Contemporary related works
While a true blurring of composition
and instrument has not been fully realized in contemporary practice
there are a number of works that show the potential embedded in
this approach. All examples discussed here demonstrate the latent
quality of "composition-instrument" in the current art
and media landscape. All of these works share three characteristics:
asynchrony, emergence, and generative-ness. Asynchrony is a key
factor in the processes of interaction. An input will have an
affect on the output of the system, but it may not be immediately
or fully apparent at the moment of interaction. While at first
this approach may seem misleading or unresponsive, it is essential
in shaping the music and the listening experience it creates.
Whereas an immediate response would cause users to focus on functionality
and "what it (the software/music) can do," a delay—however
slight—helps keeps them focused on listening and allows
for a more gradual and introspective process of discovery. Additionally,
it retains the potential for musical surprise. Listeners know
that the music is changing but they are unlikely to be able to
anticipate the nature of its transformation.
Change occurs by way of interaction
but also through various means of generation. All of the works
discussed here contain, in some way, generative processes that
affect the sound as well as the visuals and overall experience
of the piece. These processes occur in a variety of ways including
telematic exchange, random ordering and selection, and computer
algorithms. Depending upon the nature of the work, several generative
processes may be used, each in a different way, leading to a unique
experience for the end-user or listener.
As discussed earlier, emergence
is an important quality heard in Experimental, free-improvised,
and generative music. It is also a fundamental aspect of contemporary
digital art works, and can arise from a variety of sources, "ordering
itself from a multiplicity of chaotic interactions." [14]
The pieces discussed here are no exception. Whether through the
layering of sonic and visual patterns, navigation of a dataspace,
evolutionary algorithms, or telematic exchange, one cannot ignore
the emergent properties that characterize these works.
3.1 Electroplankton
Electroplankton, created for the
Ninteodo DS game system by Toshio Iwai, was released in
Japan in 2005, and later in Europe and North America in
2006. Iwai writes that the idea draws on his fascination
with different objects across the course of his life—a
microscope, a tape recorder, a synthesizer, and the Ninteodo
Entertainment System (NES). [15] Some consider it a game;
others a musical toy. Either way, Electroplankton
captivates player and audience alike with its engaging use
of sound and animation controlled via the touch-sensitive
screen of the Nintendo DS device. Using a stylus, players
are able to draw, twirl, tap, and sweep an array of animated
plankton characters on the screen. There are ten different
plankton "species;" each with its own sounds and
sound-producing characteristics. Plankton and their behavior
are linked to a pitched sound or a short recording made
by the player using the device's built-in microphone. Manipulating
an individual plankton (or its environment) initiates a
change in the sound(s) associated with it—a different
pitch, timbre, rhythm, phrase length, and so on. As multiple
plankton are manipulated, a shift in the overall sonic output
of the system is apparent, causing the music of Electroplankton
to produce textural patterns and foreground/background modulations
similar to those of In C (as described earlier).
Interactions with the plankton turn the
Nintendo DS into an instrument that can be played purposely
through the manipulation of the onscreen animations. Simultaneously,
the software programming that links sounds to the plankton
and their environment represents a musical ordering, or
composition that is implicit in Electroplankton.
The coupling of these attributes perfectly illustrates how
the combination or blurring of composition and instrument
can lead to an interactive work with profound musical potential. |
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3.2 Additional Examples
The musical qualities embedded in
Electroplankton provide a clear—but not a sole—example
of ways in which a composition-instrument approach is latent in
contemporary games and digital art works. Following are several
short descriptions of additional projects that share a similar
musical sensibility. To retain the focus of this paper, lengthy
discussions have been avoided. However, readers are encouraged
to pursue further investigation into these projects beginning
with the web sites provided here.
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3.2.1 Rez
Rez, designed by Tetsuya Mizuguchi for Sega Dreamcast
and Sony Playstation 2, is described as a musical shooter
game. Players enter the cyber world of a sleeping computer
network to destroy viruses and awaken the system. [16] Each
successful shot leads to the performance of sounds and musical
phrases that perform/compose the soundtrack for Rez
in real-time as a direct result of the game play. Both the
visual and audio experience leads players to feel an immersive,
trance-like state that makes the game incredibly captivating.
More information on Rez can be found at www.sonicteam.com/rez.
Readers may also be interested to see other musically-focused
games that require physical or "twitch" skills
such as Amplitude, Band Brothers (a.k.a. Jam With the Band
or Dai Gassou! Band Brothers), Dance Dance Revolution (a.k.a.
Dancing Stage), and Guitar Hero. |
3.2.2 Eden
Eden, by Jon McCormack, is described
as an "interactive, self-generating, artificial ecosystem."
[17] In more general terms, it is a generative installation
artwork of sound, light and animation, driven by Artificial
Life systems and environmental sensors. [18] Eden
situates visitors in a room, standing outside the virtual
ecosystem that is represented by a projected, cellular lattice
in the room's center. A visitor's presence in the room can
impact the ecosystem favorably. Someone standing in a particular
location makes the adjacent space more fertile for the creatures,
or "sonic agents," that inhabit Eden.
The lives of these creatures involve eating, mating, fighting,
moving about the environment, and central to the musical
character of the piece—singing. In various ways, all
of these activities lead to both the visual and aural events
that comprise the work. More information about Eden
and McCormack's publications can be found at www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jonmc/projects/eden/eden.html. |
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3.2.3 Intelligent Street
Intelligent Street was a telematic
sound installation where users could compose their sound
environment through SMS messages sent via mobile phone.
[19] The piece was developed in 2003 by Henrik Lörstad,
Mark d'Inverno, and John Eacott, with help from the Ambigence
Group. Intelligent Street was situated simultaneously at
the University of Westminster, London and the Interactive
Institute, Piteå, Sweden via live video connection.
Users at either end of the connection were able to see and
hear the results of their interactions. Using freely-associated,
non-musical terms such as "air" or "mellow,"
participants sent an SMS message to Intelligent Street,
and were able to hear how their contribution impacted the
overall composition. [19] Simultaneously, all received messages
were superimposed over the video feed to create a graphic
representation of the audible sounds at any given time.
Intelligent Street showed how music could be used
to set the mood of a physical space through processes of
cooperation and composition across groups of people in distributed
environments. [20] Further information about Intelligent
Street is available at John Eacott's web site (www.informal.org),
Henrik Lörstad's web site (www.lorstad.se/Lorstad/musik.html),
and the Interactive Institute of Sweden (www.tii.se/sonic.backup/intelligentstreet). |
3.2.4 PANSE
PANSE, or Public Access
Network Sound Engine, is an open platform for the development
of audio-visual netArt created by Palle Thayer. The project exists
online as a streaming audio application, and consists of a synthesizer,
two step sequencers, and an effects generator. [21] PANSE
creates an opportunity for artists and musicians to create interfaces
that control, or animations that are controlled by, the PANSE
audio stream. Information about PANSE including technical
specifics for connecting to the stream and interface authoring
is online at http://130.208.220.190/panse.
4 The Composition-Instrument in
Contemporary Projects
As stated earlier, a composition-instrument
approach is latent in contemporary practice. There are many excellent
projects where the seeds of this approach are visible but no single
work has yet realized the full potential bound within the idea.
Following is a discussion of projects that either seek—or
have great potential—to embody the composition-instrument
approach.
4.1 Perturb as a Model of Interaction
Perturb is a project developed
by the author in tandem with the research that helped inform this
paper. It was created with the intent to provide a very basic
and clear illustration of the composition-instrument idea. Perturb
shows how music can be composed and performed in real-time via
generative systems and user interaction.
The title was conceived by considering
the nature of musical interaction in these works. Composition-instrument
was initially defined as a work that can "play and
be played," and serves as a conceptual framework for
music in interactive media and digital art. The concept
strives to find a balance; neither the ability to "play"
nor "be played" should dominate a user's experience.
If interactions are too direct ("be played" is
too apparent), the piece becomes too much like an instrument
and the significance of other aspects of the artwork can
be diminished. Similarly, if an unresponsive musical environment
obscures interactions and "play" dominates the
experience, the work loses its novelty in being tied to
the course of a user's interaction. The composition-instrument
approach permits equilibrium between these two and as a
result, acknowledges user interactions as perturbations
in the overall musical system. In this context a perturbation
is understood as a ripple sent through the musical system
due to an interaction. It does not take on the clear cause-effect
nature of a musical instrument (press a key to hear a note,
for example). Instead it allows interactions to manifest
as sound, gradually following the course of the composition's
generative process. Perturbations introduce new sounds into
the composition's aural palette and can subtly reshape the
musical character of the work. |
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As a basic illustration of the composition-instrument
approach, Perturb consists solely of an interface for
introducing perturbations into the musical system. It offers nine
separate modules that can hold sound samples. Running alongside
the nine modules is a generative musical system based on the Particle
Swarm Optimization algorithm developed by Kennedy and Eberhart
[22][23]. The swarm has nine agents that correspond to each of
the nine sound modules of the interface. As the system runs, the
dynamics of individual agents within the swarm send cue messages
that tell a module to play one of its attached sound samples.
Users have the ability to attach an array of preset sounds. Or
they can attach sounds on an individual basis. Either way, when
an agent sends a cue message to its sound module, a randomly selected
sound from the module is heard. As all agents act together, the
music of Perturb begins. Users can improvise within this
structure (or perturb it) in several ways. They can use as many
or few of the nine modules as they like, which results in thinning
or thickening the musical texture. Users are also able to choose
which sound(s) are attached to each module. They can draw from
a preset database of sounds or use sound files they have created
themselves. Any of these interactions—adding/removing sounds
or modulating the sonic texture—allows the work to be played.
Simultaneously, while following the generative structure directed
by the swarm, the work is allowed to play on its own accord. The
tension between interactive control and generative autonomy define
the nature of an interaction as a perturbation. User choices are
recognized within a system, but are subject to the dynamics of
that system before they can become manifest.
Perturb was created to
demonstrate the musical and technical characteristics of a composition-instrument
approach. The strength of the piece is in its musical expressiveness
and flexibility, but it does not fully address the connection
between music conceived in the composition-instrument approach
and an interactive system or artwork. There are however other
contemporary projects where the foundations of a substantial connection
between music and interaction seem to be in the process of formation.
Photos and recordings are available
at www.x-tet.com/perturb.
4.2 Spore—The Potential
of Becoming
Spore, the current project
of game designer Will Wright (SimCity, The Sims)
is a project where a composition-instrument approach could be
fruitfully employed. Spore is slated for commercial release
in the second-half of 2007 [24], which means that much of the
argument offered here is speculative. Few details concerning Spore's
gameplay and features have been officially confirmed. However,
there have been enough published articles, screen captures, and
interviews with Wright to leave one with a good impression of
the overall flavor of Spore.
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In the game, players have the ability
to design their own characters. These creatures can look
like lizards, horses, trolls, or cutesy cartoons—whatever
a player decides to create. One potential difficulty with
this feature then becomes animating such a creature. How
can the game accurately simulate the motion of creatures
that walk with tentacles or creatures that have legs like
waterfowl or other exotic means of locomotion? This challenge
presents one of the most promising aspects of Spore—the
use of "procedurally generated content." [24]
[25] GameSpot news describes this as "content that's
created on the fly by the game in response to a few key
decisions that players make, such as how they make their
creatures look, walk, eat, and fight." [24] The technology
behind this aspect of Spore has not been revealed,
but Wright describes it using an analogy: "think of
it as sharing the DNA template of a creature while the game,
like a womb, builds the 'phenotypes' of the animal, which
represent a few megabytes of texturing, animation, etc."
[25] Spore also uses "content pollination"
to complete the make-up of one player's world using the
assets of another player. [26] The basic sharing of resources
is simple enough to grasp, but to be able to distribute
these resources realistically and allow them to engage in
believable interactions with another environment must involve
a complex Artificial Life (or A-Life-like) system. If the
world of Spore is to be a fluid ecosystem as promised,
there will have to be some sort of self-organizing system
or generative, non-linear dynamics that underlie the entire
game and allow it to unfold in a natural, organic fashion.
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The generative aspects of Spore (whether documented in
an article or speculated here) show that it has, as a central
component of its functionality, the ability to become. Wright
has commented that at one point the game was titled "Sim
Everything." [26] [26] Most likely this is due to the ability
of the game to become any kind of world the player/designer intends.
This focus on customization of experience, growth, and becoming
are what make Spore such an ideal environment for music.
In addition to exploring (to name a few) the physical, dietary,
and architectural possibilities of culture in this game environment,
it would also be interesting to explore musical possibilities.
What sounds resonate with a particular species? What devices do
they use to make music, and what is the sound of that music?
In a game of becoming like Spore,
a composition-instrument approach would be very advantageous.
Composition-instrument monitors interactions carefully and sees
each as perturbation that will have a gradual consequence within
the system where it is sensed. In the way that procedural content
generation leads to a natural mode of locomotion for a creature,
perturbations to the musical system lead to a natural development
of sounds that define that creature and its culture. As creature
and culture develop and evolve, the sounds and music that are
part of their identity take on new forms and tonalities. The generative
nature of Spore can help to sustain this development.
The game maintains its own internal sense of progress and evolution
as it grows new creatures, new landscapes, generates climates,
and pollinates one world with the contents of another. This continuous
process of generation provides the exact dynamics that enable
a composition-instrument piece to play autonomously, while a game
player's interactions in the Spore world improvise music
within its overall structure.
5 Conclusion
A composition-instrument approach
embodies qualities of music formally understood as "composed"
and "improvised." Works that use this idea are like
generative music compositions in that they have their own internal
order or organization. They are also like instruments in that
they can be played, or performed-upon, and in the course of that
performance, make an impact that modifies the character or course
of the music outputted by the generative system. This "instrumentalization"
allows for perturbations in the generative system and leads to
an emergent becoming of music. When coupled with an interactive
game system, the composition-instrument piece becomes a soundtrack
that is both responsive to the game state and autonomous in its
ability to adapt and develop relative to that state. This approach
to music for games, or any sort of interactive digital system,
hopes to open new opportunities for music in digital art and media,
and to break down the linear models that have stifled creative
progress in this area.
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REFERENCES
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[2] Alexander Brandon, Building an Adaptive Audio
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[3] Derek Bailey, Improvisation: its nature and practice
in music, New York, Da Capo, (1992)
[4] Michael Nyman, Experimental music: Cage and beyond,
Cambridge, U.K.; New York, Cambridge University Press,
(1999)
[5] Online reference: www.otherminds.org/SCORES/InC.pdf
[6] Terry Riley, In C, (1964)
[7] Cage, J. (1973). Silence: lectures and writings,
Middletown, Wesleyan University Press.
[8] Dan Warburton, Les Instants Composés, in
Marley & Wastell, et al, Blocks of consciousness
and the unbroken continuum, London, Sound 323, (2005)
[9] David Borgo, Sync or swarm: improvising music
in a complex age, New York, Continuum, (2005)
[10] Ann McCutchan and C. Baker, The muse that sings:
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IMAGE SOURCES
www.guggenheimcollection.org/site/artist_work_lg_26_3A.html
www.otherminds.org/SCORES/InC.pdf
http://personal.inet.fi/yhdistys/keravajazz/ylei/vanhat/lacy.jpg
www.starpulse.com/Video_Games/Electroplankton/gallery/4/
www.sonicteam.com/rez/e/visuals/index.html
www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jonmc/projects/eden/eden.html
www.lorstad.se/Lorstad/272A4072-4AB9-41A0-8017-165055BBF44F.html
www.spore.com/screenshots.php |
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